Pennsylvania Employment Lawyer & Attorney : Russell Krafft & Gruber Law Firm : Lancaster, York, Harrisburg

The Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) turns 15 this year and workers’ rights advocates, the Bush Administration and the Labor Department are weighing in on proposed changes to the law. According to an April 24 article in the Washington Post,

“...workers would have to tell their bosses in advance when they take nonemergency leave, instead of being able to wait until two days after they left. They would have to undergo "fitness-for-duty" evaluations if they took intermittent leave for medical reasons and wanted to return to physically demanding jobs. To prove that they had a "serious health condition," they would have to visit a health-care provider at least twice within a month of falling ill. What's more, employers would have the right to contact health-care providers who authorized leave.”

As I reviewed these proposals it occured to me that some of these changes may serve to blur the distinction between the FMLA and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA). It is not uncommon for employees to bring claims under both the FMLA and ADA. Avoid getting tripped up in the similarities of FMLA and ADA by understanding the distinctions between the two laws.

FMLA	ADA
is enforced by the Department of Labor (DOL)	is enforced by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)
applies to employers with 50 or more employees	applies to employers with 15 or more employees
eligible employees must have been employed for at least 12 months and worked 1,250 hours in the previous 12 months of employment	no eligibility restrictions
only requires an individual (or family member) to have a "serious health condition"	only covers individuals with a disability
there may be individual liability	no individual liability
no punitive or emotional damages can be awarded	punitive and emotional damages can be awarded

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The economic downturn affects businesses but also impacts the daily lives of employees. An employee’s personal financial problems can lead to bankruptcy, foreclosure and even divorce, any of which may impact his or her job and job performance.

Businesses must be prepared to respond to employee performance issues created by financial problems. Employers should be aware of legal limitations placed on their actions with regard to an employee’s financial problems. In addition, human resource professionals should appreciate the relationship between their performance management program and other resources to address employee issues created by financial distress.

Pennsylvania and federal laws limit actions employers may take against employees that file for bankruptcy or are subject to wage attachments. Many employers, particularly those in the financial sector, face customer relation problems when one of their employees doesn’t pay his or her bills or files for bankruptcy. Legal limitations on employer responses are as follows:

• Garnishment/Attachment of Wages. Pennsylvania does not allow garnishment/attachment of wages for the repayment of personal debts, except in limited circumstances for child support, alimony or student loans.   Employees may not be disciplined, discriminated against or discharged because of wage garnishments.

• Employee Bankruptcy. Section 575 of the Bankruptcy Act protects employees and applicants from discrimination if an individual:
  • is or has been a debtor under this title or a debtor or bankrupt under the Act;
  • has been insolvent before the commencement of a case under the Act or during the case but before the grant or denial of a discharge; or
  • has not paid a debt that is dischargeable in a case under this title or that was discharged under the Act.

Courts have limited the reach of this provision by requiring that the discrimination be "solely because" of the individual's bankruptcy participation.

• Worries About Temptation for Theft. Businesses may become concerned that an employee in financial distress may be more likely to embezzle and react by trying to find out the scope of an employee’s credit problems. The Fair Credit Reporting Act limits an employers use of employee credit information. A business’ usual financial controls should be uniformly applied, but, if inadequate, should be revised for all employees.                                 

Financially distressed employees may exhibit other performance problems ranging from declining productivity to depression. The usual performance management system should be utilized to correct deficiencies; however, special attention should be paid to other resources like the EAP and  Debt/Credit counseling. Some businesses may wish to go further. Susan S. Windham believes that Financial Distress for Employees Means Lower Profits for Employers. She advocates workplace financial education as the answer.

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The EEOC’s Report of Discrimination Charge filings notes that Retaliation claims rose 18% to a record high, doubling since 1992. There were 26,663 retaliation based charges filed in 2007 up from 22,555 the previous year. The trend might be explained, in part, by employees filing both a discrimination charge and a retaliation claim; increased awareness by employees, or employers mishandling employee internal complaints of discrimination.

Claims of retaliation take a very predictable path like the one recounted in a recent EEOC lawsuit. Vanguard Group settled a suit filed by the EEOC for a racial retaliation claim for a payment of $500,000.    The suit was based upon an employee’s complaint to management that he was being treated less favorably and discriminated against based on his race. Thereafter, the EEOC contended that the employee began to experience acts of retaliation, including unfavorable changes in his work conditions and assignments, from the managers he accused of race discrimination. The EEOC alleged that this pattern of retaliation resulted in the employee’s termination. The following may help HR Generalist avoid mishandling internal complaints.

1. What is Unlawful Retaliation?

An employer may not fire, demote, harass or otherwise "retaliate" against an individual for filing a charge of discrimination, participating in a discrimination proceeding, or otherwise opposing discrimination. The same laws that prohibit discrimination based on race, color, sex, religion, national origin, age, and disability, as well as wage differences between men and women performing substantially equal work, also prohibit retaliation against individuals who oppose unlawful discrimination or participate in an employment discrimination proceeding. Retaliation occurs when an employer, employment agency, or labor organization takes an adverse action against a covered individual because he or she engaged in a protected activity.

2. What is “Adverse Action” by an Employer?

An adverse action is an action taken to try to keep someone from opposing a discriminatory practice, or from participating in an employment discrimination proceeding. According to the EEOC, examples of adverse actions include:

• Employment actions such as termination, refusal to hire, and denial of promotion;
• Other actions affecting employment such as threats, unjustified negative evaluations, unjustified negative references, or increased surveillance; and
• Any other action such as an assault or unfounded civil or criminal charge that is likely to deter reasonable people from pursuing their rights.

On the other hand, the EEOC states that adverse actions do not include petty slights and annoyances, such as stray negative comments in an otherwise positive or neutral evaluation, "snubbing" a colleague, or negative comments that are justified by an employee's poor work performance or history.

3. What is “Protected Activity” by an Employee?

Protected activity includes either opposing a practice reasonably believed to be unlawful discrimination or participating in a discrimination procedure. 

Opposition is informing an employer that you believe that he/she is engaging in prohibited discrimination. Opposition is protected from retaliation as long as it is based on a reasonable, good-faith belief that the complained of practice violates anti-discrimination law; and the manner of the opposition is reasonable.  The EEOC cited examples of protected opposition to include:

• Complaining to anyone about alleged discrimination against oneself or others;
• Threatening to file a charge of discrimination;
• Picketing in opposition to discrimination; or
• Refusing to obey an order reasonably believed to be discriminatory.

According to the EEOC, examples of activities that are NOT protected opposition include:

• Actions that interfere with job performance so as to render the employee ineffective; or
• Unlawful activities such as acts or threats of violence. 

Participation means taking part in an employment discrimination proceeding. Participation is a protected activity even if the proceeding involved claims that ultimately were found to be invalid. Examples of participation include:

• Filing a charge of employment discrimination;
• Cooperating with an internal investigation of alleged discriminatory practices; or
• Serving as a witness in an EEO investigation or litigation.
• A protected activity can also include requesting a reasonable accommodation based on religion or disability.

4. Promptly Investigate Comments and Complaints Concerning Discrimination

Some HR action should be taken on all communications from employees that could later be “characterized” as either opposition or participation. At a minimum, get the facts underlying a comment about “unfairness” or “discrimination”. Obviously, you can spend your entire workday chasing down spurious remarks. You can circumvent a lot of problems merely by developing a practice of asking “what do you mean when you say it’s discriminatory?” Not taking complaints or comments seriously can be costly.

5. Monitor Supervisors for Adverse Actions following an Employee Complaint

I would wager that most acts of “retaliation” go unnoticed on HR’s radar screen because no one is actively monitoring the situation. If someone has complained about discrimination by a supervisor, HR should follow up informally with the employee to make sure that there is no real or perceived retaliation. 

* Not meant to be exhaustive.

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I consulted the on line Encarta Encyclopedia for the origins of Valentine’s Day and found the following description:

The holiday probably derives from the ancient Roman feast of Lupercalis (February 15), also called the Lupercalia. In an annual rite of fertility, eligible young men and women would be paired as couples through a town lottery. Briefly clad or naked men would then run through the town carrying the skins of newly sacrificed goats dipped in blood. The women of the town would present themselves to be gently slapped by the strips and marked by the blood to improve their chances of conceiving in the coming year.

In one sense, the holiday’s evolution to cards and candy has been well received, at least by the goat population. I don’t think Lupercalis is celebrated at the EEOC. Nonetheless, workplace romance gone bad accounts for a significant number of sexual harassment claims as noted on my prior post Fishing off the Company Dock: A Legal Perspective. Similar advice and anecdotal observations appear at the Ohio Employer’s Law Blog’s post on When office romances go bad and the Washington Labor, Employment & Employee Benefits Law Blog’s post on Romance in the Workplace & “Love Contracts”.

So what are the legal ins and outs of office romance and how can a business employ prophylactic measures to protect itself. Here is a list of things I can recommend:

Implement a Strong Policy Against Sexual and other Harassment

The EEOC has issued extensive guidance on sexual harassment policies and there ability to reduce an employer's liability for harassment.   One of the most critical components of such a policy is an effective complaint procedure to redress claims of harassment.

Develop a Policy on Office Romance without calling it "Fraternization"

It doesn't take a NASA scientist to realize organizations may need a policy addressing workplace romance (or maybe it does). According to Office Politics, thirty-five percent of companies have no formal workplace romance policy. Develop a policy, but avoid overly broad definitions and in particular the word "fraternize' which was the court's primary objection in the in Guardsmark case.

Train Supervisors

Supervisory training on sexual harassment can demonstrate a company's good faith attempts to comply with the law. Such training should explain the types of conduct that violate the employer's anti-harassment policy; the seriousness of the policy; the responsibilities of supervisors and managers when they learn of alleged harassment; and the prohibition against retaliation.

Proactively Evaluate and Confront Situations

Most employers are content to sit passively and watch "As the World Turns". Many will not act unless it "becomes a disruption". Consider some proactive steps. If the romance is between co-workers, make sure they understand that it cannot impact productivity. If it is between a supervisor and subordinate, evaluate whether there should be changes in the reporting structure. Don't automatically transfer or reassign the female in the relationship or you will risk a discrimination claim.

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Employment Practices Liability Insurance (EPLI) may be a relative bargain in the continued “soft” insurance market and employers should consider adding or increasing insurance coverage to protect against employment claims. EPLI insurance is somewhat quirky and the following are some considerations when evaluating policies:

1. Coverage:  EPLI policies typically cover claims of wrongful discharge, workplace harassment and discrimination. Many offer a more comprehensive list of covered acts, including negligent hiring/supervision/evaluations, invasion of privacy, defamation and intentional infliction of emotional distress.  Coverage typically applies to claims made by full time employees so as to exclude those by part-timers, temporary, seasonal and independent contractors.  In comparing policies, look for one that has the most expansive coverage. 
2. Exclusions.  EPLI policies exclude many claims based on the statute that creates the legal right or the activity that gives rise to the claim. Exclusions apply to the Fair Labor Standards Acts; the National Labor Relations Act; the Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act (WARN); the Consolidated Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act (COBRA); the Employee Retirement Income Security Act (ERISA); the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA); the costs associated with providing "reasonable accommodation" under the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA); as well as  claims arising out of downsizing, layoffs, workforce restructurings, plant closures or strikes. Punitive damages are always excluded. Carefully evaluate the excluded claims in light of your business practices. In the case of multi-state operations, be aware that some state laws create substantial employment rights that must also be evaluated under the policy language.
3. Policy Limits and Deductibles: Policy limits and deductibles usually apply on a per claim and aggregate basis. For example, coverage may be limited to $250,000 for each separate claim with an overall aggregate cap of $1 million for all claims. Employers must formulate their insurance goals in setting the appropriate deductibles and limits. Some employers view EPLI insurance as catastrophic coverage and are willing to accept a high deductible that allows them to handle smaller claims themselves.  However, other employers are looking for more blanket coverage.
4. Defense Costs, Selection of Counsel and Settlement: Defense costs are usually included within the EPLI policy’s limits, which has good and bad points. Many times, the legal expense is the largest cost to an employer in dealing with merit less claims. However, including defense costs means that every dollar an employer spends defending a claim reduces the amount available for settlement or to pay a judgment.  Since the existence of insurance coverage must be disclosed as part of discovery in most law suits, a plaintiff’s attorney will factor insurance coverage into his or her case evaluation. The defense cost feature may influence plaintiffs’ counsel to try to settle early, rather than force an employer to incur litigation costs that will only erode the insurance dollars available for potential settlement.  Employment claims often have significant employee relations ramifications making settlement a particularly important issue. Insurers view employment claims the same as any other insurance matter by evaluating only the potential for liability and the amount of damages. The employer and insurer may be at odds over settling a case. EPLI policies address this stalemate by either giving the insurer the right to settle without the employer’s approval or, more frequently, giving  an employer control over settlement, but adding a “hammer clause”. These clauses are designed to limit the insurer’s potential exposure if the policyholder passes up an opportunity to settle a claim recommended by the insurer.  Hammer clauses provide that if there is an offer to settle a claim that the policyholder refuses accept, then the insurer will not be liable for a subsequent settlement or judgment in excess of a rejected settlement amount.  
5. Policy Types and Insurance Company Notification: EPLI policies are typically written on a “claims  made” basis meaning that the claim must be incurred during the coverage period and reported to the insurer during an extended reporting period. Since employment actions may take years to turn into a claims, an employer may be left with no coverage if the policy is dropped or tail coverage isn’t purchased.  Untimely notice to an insurance carrier can void coverage for and employment claim.

* Not intended to be Exhaustive.

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What motivates a terminated employee to sue his or her employer is a complex issue. In my experience, the manner in which an employee is “fired” is at least as likely to lead to a lawsuit as the “reason” given for his or her termination. Many lawyers spend all their time on justifying the reasons for why an employee is being let go which are important because they form the basis for the legal defense. However, I believe that not getting sued at all is better for my clients than having a great defense.

I advocate planning both the “How” and the “Why” of an employee termination.  Managing the manner of termination reduces the risk of lawsuits and incidents of workplace violence. The following are ten suggestions I have on handling a workplace termination:

• Treat the employee with dignity and respect. Don’t get personal in the termination meeting.
• Avoid humiliation. Don’t make the employee do the walk of shame or leave your business under circumstances that lead others to think he or she stole from you or committed some other serious misconduct. I have several cases where the employee’s major motivation for suing is being lead to an exit escorted by a security guard while carrying a cardboard box containing personal items. Allow the employee to come back later to collect personal affects or clean out an office or locker.
• Select an appropriate time and location. Avoid times and locations that are highly visible to other employees. Many employers select the end of the business day at the end of the work week, but this may be the wrong time for employees who may need access to support services like the EAP.
• Consider giving a reason. When asked in a deposition why an employee sued, the most common answer I hear is that “I was never given a reason for being fired.” There may be legal circumstances for avoiding an explanation, but they are rare. Formulate a reason and articulate it to the employee. Reserve some latitude to supplement the reason, but at least have some explanation. Once given, don’t debate its merits, but listen to the employee’s response. You might hear something that makes you reconsider your decision, like “this all started when I refused to sleep with my supervisor”.
• Plan your communication. Consider scripting what you will say and formulate responses to typical questions, like “Can I resign.” Don’t text message termination or layoff decisions unless there is just no other way to communicate. Consider a follow up letter that gives your reasons and preserves your right to supplement it with additional reasons. Don’t blame the decision on others like the “home office” or “management”.
• Agree on a Reference, if possible. If the employee knows what the company will say in response to a reference request, then he or she can address it in an interview or on an application. If the reference is inconsistent then the employee won’t get a new job and will be more likely to sue the company.
• Offer Assistance like the EAP or Outplacement. Consider resources that may help an employee with emotional problems or assist them in a job search.
• Protect your employees and business assets. Plan the termination to protect your employees from violence in the workplace and your business assets from sabotage or damage, but don’t overreact. Armed guards and lock changing may not be necessary. Retrieving keys, credit cards, passwords and canceling computer access are.
• Communicate with remaining employees. Plan some formal communication with other employees and individuals outside the company. This is difficult and uncomfortable, but necessary.
• Control the rumor mill. Don’t allow gossip to incorrectly communicate any information.

Let’s face it, it’s a bad situation. But it is one that can be made worse through poor communication. Respect and empathy go a long way. Take for example the infamous Cheers episode entitled the Executive’s Executioner in which Norm becomes his employer’s designated terminator because he is so empathetic. Since no YouTube clip is available, the following is the dialog between Norm and his boss:

[Mr. Hecht, Norm's boss, confronts him in Cheers' restroom]
Mr. Hecht: We want you to be our corporate killer.
Norm: The guy who fires people?
Mr. Hecht: That's right. You see, we decided that terminating employees puts too much stress on our executives. We think you'll be perfect.
Norm: Why me?
Mr. Hecht: Because studies have shown that, uh, it's particularly humiliating when you're fired by somebody who's clearly and markedly superior to yourself. And, uh, that just wouldn't be the case with you, Norman. See, uh, you're just an ordinary Joe. As a matter of fact, we, uh, we checked out your homelife. You have absolutely nothing anyone could possibly envy or resent.
Norm: I'm honored, sir. But I, this, this sounds like a horrible job, frankly.
Mr. Hecht: It's a 300% raise and if you don't take it you're fired.
Norm: Sir, I will have you know that I cannot be bought... and I cannot be threatened; but you put the two together and I'm your man.

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Microsoft Corp. tendered an unsolicited takeover offer of $44.6 billion for Yahoo, Inc. As with any acquisition/merger, both businesses need to calm the troops by making assurance of job security. In today’s world, every employee knows that the buzz words like “business synergies” and “market overlap” mean layoffs for employees whose jobs are “redundant”. As reported by MSNBC,  Microsoft said” it sees at least $1 billion in cost savings generated by the combination, and intends to offer significant retention packages to Yahoo engineers, key leaders and employees.”

Retention Bonuses are an important talent management tool for all size companies when the organization faces uncertainty due to merger, bankruptcy or other business transition that creates uncertainty for employees. I have seen retention bonuses used successfully by businesses in financial hardship because of the loss of a large contract, exiting form bankruptcy protection, or to counter a competitors raiding of its talent. However, the communications and documentation of a bonus program must be carefully managed to avoid unintended consequences.

Kate DCamp takes the contrary view in her posting “Do Retention Bonuses Work? She believes that the money motivator almost never works:

In most situations, what works is specific to the problem diagnosed. In a business turnaround, tripling communications and sharing some of the "upside" can be very effective to keep critical talent. An opportunity to have more impact on the business and a chance to earn extra money by achieving business goals sends a clear signal about someone's importance to the company.

Dr. John Sullivan posting on “Retention Bonuses – Are they a good idea?” has a great laundry list of “unintended consequences” including:

• Creating uncertainty in those who are not offered the bonus
• Exacerbating a we verses them mentality in the case of a merger of two companies
• Having those employees who will depart anyway conduct their job search on your time
• Denigrating the principle that performance matters
• Creating job security for those who may not deserve it

From a legal point of view, any bonus plan should be in writing with specific eligibility and trigger requirements. Careful consideration must be given to selection criteria to defend against discrimination claims. Bonus payments are treated as wages and subject to payroll taxes.

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The White House announced that President Bush signed of the National Defense Authorization Act (H.R. 4986) which includes additional FMLA leave for military families.  Section 585 (full text set forth below) of the bill (similar to the one vetoed in December) adds two new FMLA-qualifying events, expanding FMLA to include employees caring for an injured service member as well as family members who have a family member called to active duty.

The DOL has summarized the provisions and indicated that the caregiver provisions of the law are effective immediately while the other provisions aren’t effective until DOL issued final regulations. The DOL is “working quickly” to prepare comprehensive guidance, and will require employers to act in good faith until guidance is issued. Employers should immediately adopt FMLA-type procedures for substitution of paid leave and notice as it applies to the new legislation.

Under the new law, FMLA-eligible employees will now be entitled to the following:

Caregiver Leave for an Injured Servicemember:  This benefit permits a “spouse, son, daughter, parent, or next of kin” to take up to 26 workweeks of leave to care for a “member of the Armed Forces, including a member of the National Guard or Reserves, who is undergoing medical treatment, recuperation, or therapy, is otherwise in outpatient status, or is otherwise on the temporary disability retired list, for a serious injury or illness.”

Family Leave Due to a Call to Active Duty:   This benefit provides 12 weeks of FMLA leave for “any qualifying exigency (as the Secretary [of Labor] shall, by regulation, determine) arising out of the fact that the spouse, or a son, daughter, or parent of the employee is on active duty (or has been notified of an impending call or order to active duty) in the Armed Forces in support of a contingency operation.”

Continue Reading...

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            There has always been tension between the arbitration process and the judicial process, particularly when it comes to judicial review of an arbitrator's decision. In its decision in Westmoreland Intermediate Unit #7 v. Westmoreland Intermediate Unit #7 Classroom Assistants Educational Support Personnel Association, PSEA/NEA, the Pennsylvania Supreme Court reaffirmed Pennsylvania's policy favoring arbitration and the finality of an arbitrators decision. The Court expressly reaffirmed the "essence test" as the proper standard to be employed by a court; adopted a public policy exception to the essence test; and rejected the prior "core functions exception".

            If my description is making your head spin, welcome to the world of grievance arbitration. Although the case is set in the context of a grievance arbitration for public employees, it has important instructional value for all unionized employers as well as those employers who are tempted to adopt contractual arbitration agreements to avoid the expense of litigation. The possibility of getting a "crazy" decision reversed in court is remote.

            The facts of the Westmoreland Intermediate Unit case demonstrate how an arbitrator's decision can have significant implications for an employer's workforce leaving an employer almost no option when it comes to appealing the award. The case involved a public school's decision to terminate a classroom assistant for a work related substance abuse episode. The employee had twenty-three years experience and no prior disciplinary action. The classroom assistant was under the treatment of a physician who had prescribed several medications. She made the decision to supplement her physician prescribed medications with another prescription medication a friend had given her. The misuse of the friend's prescription medication is a crime for which the classroom assistant was later prosecuted.

            On the day she misused the friend's prescription medication, she had an adverse reaction at work resulting in her being found unresponsive in a restroom while she was to be attending to her classroom duties. Emergency personnel were summoned to assist her and the entire school was placed under a "code blue" which is essentially a lock down.

            The school terminated the classroom assistant for "immorality" which is one of several statutorily enumerated causes for termination of a school district's professional employees. The union grieved the termination and an arbitrator found that the employee's behavior was "foolish" and "irresponsible" but did not rise to the level of "immorality". The arbitrator determined just cause did not exist under the collective bargaining agreement to terminate the employee. The school appealed the decision into court where the first level of appellate court reversed the decision of the arbitrator finding that the unique nature of the school's function (educating children) allowed for the application of the "core functions" exception to determine whether the arbitrator's award was rationally derived from the collective bargaining agreement.

            The Pennsylvania Supreme Court reversed the ruling holding that the "essence test" is the proper standard to be employed by a court when reviewing a grievance or arbitration award and adopting a public policy exception to that test while rejecting the "core functions" exception. Along the way, the court made the following important observations about a court's judicial review of an arbitration award:

• “The General Assembly requires that the decision of the arbitrator shall be final and binding upon the parties. Therefore, final and binding arbitration is not only highly valued in labor relations for its speed, inexpensiveness and efficiency, it is required under the law.”
• “Broad judicial review of an arbitrator's award . . . would undercut these attributes of arbitration, and thus, thwart the Legislature's intentions regarding resolution of labor disputes. Specifically, judicial review that would allow the regular vacating of arbitration awards would not only encourage extended litigation through court review of arbitration awards, but would add time and expense to the process and would take the resolution of disputes from a person chosen by the parties and give it to a court to decide.”
• “An arbitrator is confined to interpretation and application of the collective bargaining agreement; he does not sit to dispense his own brand of industrial justice. He may, of course, look for guidance from many sources, yet his award is legitimate only so long as it draws its essence from the collective bargaining agreement."
• “The arbitrator's award will be upheld if the arbitrator's interpretation can rationally be derived from the collective bargaining agreement. That is to say, a court will only vacate an arbitrator's award where the award indisputably and genuinely is without foundation in, or fails to logically flow from, the collective bargaining agreement.”
• “The essence test does not permit an appellate court to intrude into the domain of an arbitrator and determine whether the award is ‘manifestly unreasonable.’”
• The Pennsylvania Supreme Court adopts the principles established in federal arbitration that is "courts should not enforce an arbitration award that contravenes public policy." This exception is grounded in the general rule that a court will not enforce a contract which is unlawful or in violation of public policy.
• “The public policy must be well defined and documented and is to be ascertained by reference to the laws and legal precedents and not from general considerations of proposed public interests.”

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A recent federal court of appeals decision in Simple v. Walgreens Company is a case study on two important points. First, how the pressures of marketing in a competitive retail environment can overtake the limits of discrimination laws. Second, how a supervisor’s communication with an employee can create an issue of discrimination.

Like many retailers, Walgreens tracks demographic data and relates it to each retail store. At issue in the case was whether the racial demographic data was used in promotion decisions to assign personnel to “black” or “white” stores depending on the race of the employee. The court noted as follows:

There is no evidence that [the successful white candidate] was more qualified to manage the store in Pontiac[, Michigan] than the plaintiff, who had twice her experience as an assistant manager, the mandatory stepping stone to store manager. But she is white, and the store is in a predominantly white neighborhood, while the plaintiff is black and so was twice offered a "black" store--and when the store manager's job at the "white" store fell vacant he was ignored.

The evidence of the company’s racial motivation was found in a supervisor’s comments to the plaintiff in an effort to make him feel better:

"I may have stated that Pontiac was possibly not ready to have a black manager. It is well known in this area that some of the smaller, outlying towns have some very racist tendencies, and I was simply trying to make [the plaintiff] feel better because my feeling was he may not have been very happy working there."

From this statement, the court concluded as follows:

The significance of [the supervisor's] remark about racism in Pontiac lies in the fact that as an experienced Walgreens store manager (it appears that she had been one for at least four years) she was undoubtedly aware of what [the district manager] was looking for in a store manager in Pontiac, and one interpretation of the remark is that the plaintiff's race would bar him from consideration…. The plaintiff would not feel "happy" among Pontiac's white racists, which is a standard euphemism for refusing a job to someone of a different race from the people he would be associating with. Racial segregation is obviously a form of racial discrimination.

The presumption underlying “customer preferences” is that people prefer to interact with those of the same race, gender, religion, or other characteristic. Employment decisions are justified by appealing to a target demographic group. Courts have universally rejected customer preference as a basis for employment decisions except in the narrow case where it is a Bona Fide Occupational Qualification (BFOQ).

The attorneys at Godfrey & Kahn have a great post analyzing the role of customer preference in health care marketing called Can We Use Gender in Our Hiring Decisions? The Discrimination Bona Fide Occupational Qualification (BFOQ) Applied to Health Care.  Fay Hansen’s post Recruiting on the Right Side of the Law describes the pressures of retail establishments to market an image through their sales associates and the resulting discrimination issues.

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The EEOC issued final regulations that create a specific exemption from the Age discrimination laws (ADEA) allowing employers to coordinate (meaning alter, reduce or eliminate) health benefits for retirees who become eligible for Medicare. The EEOC regulations describe the exemption as follows:

Some employee benefit plans provide health benefits for retired participants that are altered, reduced or eliminated when the participant is eligible for Medicare health benefits or for health benefits under a comparable State health benefit plan, whether or not the participant actually enrolls in the other benefit program. Pursuant to the authority contained in section 9 of the Act and in accordance with the procedures provided therein and in Sec. 1625.30(b) of this part, it is hereby found necessary and proper in the public interest to exempt from all prohibitions of the Act such coordination of retiree health benefits with Medicare or a comparable State health benefit plan.

According to the NY Times, 10 million retirees rely on employer-sponsored health plans as their primary source of coverage or as a supplement to Medicare. With the rising cost of healthcare, many employers were considering the elimination of retiree benefits. The motivation for employers to eliminate retiree health coverage was greatly increased following a ruling by the Third Circuit Court of Appeals in 2000. In its decision in Erie County Retirees Association v. County of Erie, the Court held that the ADEA required that health benefits offered to Medicare-eligible retirees must be the same, or have the same cost to the employer, as benefits offered to employees under age 65. The ruling prohibited an employer from taking into account Medicare coverage in providing health benefits to retirees. Employers scrambled to justify plan designs that almost universally coordinated with Medicare.

In 2004, the EEOC issued proposed regulations that created an exemption in response to the Erie County decision. The American Association of Retired Persons (AARP) filed suit and won an injunction barring the EEOC from implementing the exemption. On appeal, the same Third Circuit Court of Appeals that decided Erie County ruled that the EEOC had properly issued the exemption under its authority in the ADEA. AARP has sought an appeal to the US Supreme Court.

The EEOC exemption gives employers an important cost control option in designing retiree health benefit programs. Barring an unexpected ruling by the U.S. Supreme Court, the uncertainty created in this area should subside.

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One December 16, 2007, the Board issued its much anticipated decision in Guard Publishing Company d/b/a Register Guard and Eugene Newspaper Guild, CWA Local 37194 holding an employer did not violate section 7 by maintaining a policy that prohibited employees from using the employer’s e-mail system of any “non-job-related solicitations.”

The NLRB’s 3-2 decision also announced and applied a new standard for determining whether an employer has violated the act by discriminatorily enforcing its policies to disadvantage protected union-related activity. The new standard distinguishes between personal nonwork-related messages and “group” or “organizational” messages such as a union. Therefore, “discrimination under the Act means drawing distinctions along Section 7 lines.”

In Guard Publishing, the employer had a written policy prohibiting e-mail use for non-work-related solicitations. However, the employer allowed several such communications like jokes, party invitations, request for services such as dog walking, etc, but it never allowed e-mail use for solicitation by or on behalf of outside organizations other than the United Way. The employer issued two warnings to an employee who sent three union-related e-mails, which lead to the charge of discriminatory enforcement of the policy.

The Board majority held that two of the three e-mail communications were direct solicitations to join the union and violated the policy; however, the third message was not a solicitation, merely a clarification of events surrounding a union event. Therefore, under the newly announced standard, the employer did not discriminate along section 7 lines when it disciplined the employee for the two union solicitation e-mails since it had never allowed employees to use its e-mail system to solicit on behalf of any other outside group. However, the employer’s enforcement of the policy with respect to the third e-mail which was not a solicitation was unlawful.

The new standard should have an important impact on employer’s e-mail policies and charges related to discriminatory enforcement of employer’s policies.

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There is only one war story I ever tell because I don’t talk about my client’s problems with anyone no matter how humorous they might be.   The Connecticut Employment Law Blog and  Ohio Employer’s Law Blog have postings on an employer’s liability for the “mere presence” of pornography in the workplace. All I can say is sometimes the most obvious things are overlooked.

About ten years ago, I  was asked by corporate counsel to conduct sexual harassment training at a series of distribution centers. At one remote location space was tight so the plant manager had set up rows of chairs in the receiving department. What had escaped his notice was on the wall of the receiving department behind the podium from which I was to make my presentation was a collage of every Playboy Centerfold for the preceding 20 years. The pin up shrine went from floor to ceiling and encompassed an area about 40’ X 40’.  I thought I was on candid camera.

My first reaction (well maybe my second) was to cancel the training, but it was obvious that this company was in dire need of it.  In any event, I also realized that I had hit the mother lode of future business in defending  this company from discrimination claims.  I decided to orient the chairs in the other direction and go on with the training. Admittedly, I downplayed some training materials on the problems with sexually explicit materials in the workplace.

The training went surprisingly well, with no mention of the “wall”.  Perhaps it had been there so long, no one even notice it anymore, but you can bet it would have been the centerpiece of any sexual harassment claim.  After the training was over, I read the plant manager the riot act.

The next time I was in that plant, no mention was made of the shrine but it was gone.  In its place was one of those signs detailing the number of days since the last lost time accident.   I wasn't sure I had gotten my point across to this company until I drove out of the parking lot.  It was then that I saw the three guys from the  receiving department  standing in an open garage bay giving me the finger. I thought again about the mother lode of future business.

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The CEO of the American Red Cross resigned after disclosure of a relationship with an employee.  The Red Cross Board of Governors stated that his resignation was requested for using “poor judgment” that “diminished his ability to lead the organization in the future”.   It amazes me that this type of leadership gaff can be repeated across so many organizations.

Strictly speaking, “sexual favoritism” is not unlawful sex discrimination so long as the relationship is consensual and does not discriminate against other men and women in the workplace. The EEOC’s Guidance on Employer Liability for Sexual Favoritism which was last updated in 1999 states as follows:

It is the Commission's position that Title VII does not prohibit isolated instances of preferential treatment based upon consensual romantic relationships. An isolated instance of favoritism toward a "paramour" (or a spouse, or a friend) may be unfair, but it does not discriminate against women or men in violation of Title VII, since both are disadvantaged for reasons other than their genders.

Strictly speaking, sexual favoritism by a high level executive is an employee relations problem and an unacceptable legal risk. Organizations cannot rely on the relationship remaining consensual and hazard the legal and public relations consequences.

Nonetheless, office romance is more prevalent than I ever appreciated until I researched a prior post on Fishing off the Company Dock: A Legal Perspective. Here are some of the proactive steps an employer can take to anticipate and manage the situation:

Implement a Strong Policy against Sexual and other Harassment

The EEOC has issued extensive guidance on sexual harassment policies and there ability to reduce an employer's liability for harassment.   One of the most critical components of such a policy is an effective complaint procedure to redress claims of harassment. Obviously, the avenue for making a complaint cannot be exclusively with a supervisor.

Develop a Policy on Office Romance without calling it "Fraternization"

According to Office Politics, thirty-five percent of companies have no formal workplace romance policy. Develop a policy, but avoid overly broad definitions and in particular the word "fraternize' which was the court's primary objection in the in Guardsmark case.

Train Supervisors

Supervisory training on sexual harassment can demonstrate a company's good faith attempts to comply with the law. Such training should explain the types of conduct that violate the employer's anti-harassment policy; the seriousness of the policy; the responsibilities of supervisors and managers when they learn of alleged harassment; and the prohibition against retaliation.

Proactively Evaluate and Confront Situations

Most employers are content to sit passively and tolerate the employee relations fall out of an office romance. Many will not act unless it "becomes a disruption". Consider some proactive steps. If the romance is between co-workers, make sure they understand that it cannot impact productivity. If it is between a supervisor and subordinate, evaluate whether there should be changes in the reporting structure. Don't automatically transfer or reassign the female in the relationship or you will risk a discrimination claim. 

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The OSHA PPE Final Rule generally requires employers to pay for PPE, and sets forth specific exceptions where employers are not required to pay for such equipment.    Employers are responsible for paying for the minimum level of PPE required by the standards and must amend their policies within six months.  If an employer decides to use upgraded PPE to meet the requirements, the employer must pay for that PPE. If an employer provides PPE at no cost, an employee asks to use different PPE, and the employer decides to allow him or her to do so, then the employer is not required to pay for the item. The employer must also pay for the replacement of PPE used to comply with OSHA standards except in circumstances in which an employee has lost or intentionally damaged the PPE issued to him or her, an employer is not required to pay for its replacement and may require the employee to pay for such replacement.

The rule enumerates the following exceptions to the employer pay requirement:

1. Non-specialty safety-toe protective footwear and non-specialty prescription safety eye wear. Employers are not required to pay for ordinary safety-toe footwear and ordinary prescription safety eye wear, so long as the employer allows the employee to wear these items off the job-site.

2.   Metatarsal protection. Employers are not required to pay for shoes with integrated metatarsal protection as long as the employer provides and pays for metatarsal guards that attach to the shoes.

3.    Logging Boots. Employers are not required to pay for the logging boots required by 1910.266(d) (1) (v), but leaves the responsibility for payment open to employer and employee negotiation.

4.   Everyday clothing.  OSHA recognizes that there are certain circumstances where long-sleeve shirts, long pants, street shoes, normal work boots, and other similar types of clothing could serve as PPE. Nonetheless, employers are not required to pay for such everyday clothing. Similarly, employers are not required to pay for ordinary clothing used solely for protection from weather, such as winter coats, jackets, gloves, and parkas. In the rare case that ordinary weather gear is not sufficient to protect the employee and special equipment or extraordinary clothing is needed to protect the employee from unusually severe weather conditions, the employer is required to pay for such protection. However, clothing used in artificially-controlled environments with extreme hot or cold temperatures, such as freezers, is not considered part of the weather gear exception.

The most interesting part of OSHA’s final rule, as noted by Michael Fox at Employer’s Lawyer, is that it took 8 years to promulgate the rule.

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As credit related losses ripple through the financial and construction sectors, many organizations will be forced to consider job cuts. Selecting employees for lay off must be collaboration between managers and human resources. HR must be able to influence the process to reduce legal risks and assuage the anxiety of remaining employees:

1)     Establishing Business Justification and Layoff Selection Criteria:

The business justification for the reduction in force or layoff must be established. The justification for layoff typically gives rise to the selection criteria. For example, if a large contract was lost, the production and support functions related to the lost contract will be the focus or the layoff.

Layoff decisions may be challenged under discrimination laws, so it is advisable to develop selection criteria that support the business reasons for selecting one employee over another. Unless dictated by union contract, employers have discretion in developing the selection criteria which can include factors like, seniority, relative skills, performance, and/or disciplinary record.  More than one factor may be used.

Forced Ranking Systems are sometimes utilized to rank employees against one another from the top down based on performance criteria. The subjectivity in forced ranking can be challenged as discriminatory unless uniformly and rationally applied.

2)     Evaluating Impact of Selection Criteria including Bumping, Transfer and Recall Rights:

Once employees are identified for layoff, the results of the section criteria must be assessed in terms of disparate impact and other special circumstances. A disparate impact analysis should be conducted to assess whether the selection criteria have resulted in the disproportionate layoff of members of a protected class. Likewise, special circumstances should be evaluated such as employees with recent employment complaints, union activity, FMLA leaves, etc.  Consider documenting the final layoff decisions, but not the deliberations leading up to them.

Thought must be given to collateral job rights employees may have under employment policies and practices. Typical areas involve shift or department transfers, supervisor demotion in lieu of layoff, and voluntary layoffs. Likewise, the parameters of recall, if any, should be described.

3)     WARNA Obligations:

Federal and state plant closing/mass layoff laws must be considered. Although Pennsylvania has no state law equivalent to WARNA, employers with multi-state operations must assess the application of such laws. Coverage under WARNA can be complex as it has look back rules which aggregate layoffs for determining triggering events. WARNA coverage will trigger the sixty notice period which has a tremendous impact on layoff planning raising issues of pay in lieu of notice, retention, and publicity.

4)      Severance Benefits and Releases:

Careful consideration must be given to describing the benefit package, if any, offered to employees. If an employer is offering benefits that exceed those already provided by policy or mandated by law, it should consider obtaining a release. The federal Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) contains special rules for waivers of rights of claims of age discrimination including a 45-day consideration and seven day revocation period for such releases. Furthermore, the ADEA contains informational requirements that mandate publication of summary of employee demographic information in connection with the release.

5)     Communications Plan:

Effective communication is paramount in reducing employee legal claims and assuaging the anxiety of remaining employees. Everything that is said about the reasons for the layoff will be scrutinized in litigation. Consider scripting communications for group meetings and avoid individual discussions of the reason for selection. Large layoffs may generate news media interest for which a press release is a helpful way to influence the message.

*Not meant to be exhaustive.

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Rising costs have motivated many employers to adopt High Deductible Health Plans (HDHP) increasing the amount paid by employees for health care coverage. The Towers Perrin 2008 Health Care Cost Survey notes that employees are responsible for 22% of the cost of coverage or about $2000 per employee plus the cost of deductibles and co-pays. The average out of pocket expense for an employee is has doubled in the last 5 years.

Employers face employee relations challenges when attempting to pass along the out of pocket increases to employees without offering some funding assistance on either a transitional or ongoing basis. There is a significant learning curve for many of the accounts both in terms of evaluating the amount of employee/employer contributions and navigating the claims/reimbursement process.

Several options exist for employers to bridge the funding gap created by migrating to a HDHP from a more traditional indemnity arrangement including the following:

Health Savings Accounts (HSA) HSAs can be funded by both voluntary tax deductible employee contributions and/or tax exempt employer contributions allowing the combination of employer employee contributions to fully fund the deductible (up to the IRS limit). The contributions remain in the HSA and accumulate interest on a tax free basis. Distributions are tax free as long as the funds are used for Qualified Medical Expenses. An HSA may be moved to successive employers or used in retirement. The advantages or an HSA are portability; tax-free contributions, accumulations, and distributions; ownership of the account by the employee. The disadvantages of HSAs are that they can only be used with a HDHP; must be uniformly funded by employers; may discourage employees from seeking medical treatment; and are limited in their use with other types of accounts like FSAs and HRAs. Other problems have been identified in a previous post.

Medical Savings Accounts (MSA) MSAs may be established by self-employed individuals or employees of small employers (less than 50). The MSA is a tax exempt trust held by a financial institution and operates like an HSA.  Employers may contribute to an Archer MSA, but if they do, the employee may not contribute for that year. Contributions are limited to 75% of the annual HDHP deductible. Employers must make uniform contributions to their employees if they choose to contribute. The additional advantage of an MSA is that it may be established by an employee without employer sponsorship.

Flexible Spending Accounts (FSA)  Employees may contribute to an FSA on a pre-tax basis as part of an employer sponsored cafeteria plan. Both employers and employees can contribute to an FSA.      FSAs fund Qualified Medical Expenses, except health insurance premiums and long term care expenses. The big disadvantage of an FSA is that any money remaining in the account that is not used to reimburse expenses is forfeited. There is no accumulation of money in the account from one year to the next.

Health Reimbursement Arrangements (HRA) HRAs may only be funded by employers on a uniform basis for all participating employees. Employees may not contribute. There are no limits on the amount of employer contributions, but HRA funds may only be used for Qualified Medical Expenses which include health insurance premiums. HRA contributions are tax free and unused amounts may be carried over to subsequent years. HRAs are not portable and do not accumulate earnings on account balances. They compare favorably with FSA because there is no use it or lose it. An employer may offer both an HRA and FSA, but there are complex ordering rules coordinating the interaction of FSA and HRA payments and prohibitions on funding the HRA with FSA contributions.

Combined Accounts (MSA, HRA and FSA)   It is possible, but complex, to offer multiple arrangements in an attempt to bridge the funding gap. There is IRS guidance on the interaction of HSAs and other Health Arrangements.

Obviously, legal advise is paramount in plan design and drafting.

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The average corporate health benefit expenditure in 2008 will be $9,312 per employee—an increase of 7 percent over 2007—with annual per-employee contributions exceeding $2,000, according to Towers Perrin's 2008 Health Care Cost Survey. Some highlights of the survey are as follows:

• Employers are expecting to subsidize 78 percent of next year's premium costs, and employees will have to cover the remaining 22 percent, plus usage-based co-pays, deductibles and co-insurance.
• Employee contributions, on average, will jump by $156 per employee per year to $2,040, an 8 percent increase that is roughly twice that of annual employee merit increases.
• Analyzing the data by coverage level, the average reported 2008 cost of annual medical coverage will be:
  • Employee-only coverage:              $4,704
  • Employee-plus-one coverage:       $9,660
  • Family coverage:                         $13,704

The Towers Perrin Survey also tracks the cost variations across “High-Performing” and “Low-Performing” Companies noting a cost disparity per employee per year of $8,844 and $10,320 which is explained as follows:

According to the Towers Perrin data, these [high-performing] companies have clear strategies in place to drive improvements in employees’ overall health and wellness, engagement in health care decisions and health-related behaviors, as well as to identify problems early and take advantage of opportunities for improvement by understanding the current state of their benefit program and the health care system overall.

To the extent that high performance is enhanced by plan design, I am seeing a strong trend to High Deductible Health Plans coupled with either Health Savings Accounts, Medical Savings Accounts or Health Reimbursement Arrangements. The pros and cons of some of these arrangements have been discussed previously in Problems with Health Savings Accounts (HSA). 

There is also a clear trend among employers to adopt wellness programs with financial incentives for behavior changes.  Some of the issue surrounding wellness programs have been discussed in Wellness Programs Must Comply with HIPAA Restriction;Successful Wellness Programs Implemented by D&E Communications;  Sizing Up Obesity: Can Wellness Programs Curb BMI?

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Yesterday’s $11.6 million jury verdict in the Isiah Thomas/New York Knicks sexual harassment case is generating tremendous blog commentary. Here’s what some are saying about the Knicks’ lawsuit and its “Wake-Up Call” potential:

Kris Dunn at HR Capitalist has a post on Fire, Suspend or Play On?... Isiah Thomas Trial Verdict.... Since the start of the trial, Kris has been soliciting opinions on how the Knicks should address Mr. Thomas’ employment. Now that the verdict is in, it is easier to address his employment and many sports analysts are calling for his termination.

Rush Nigut at Rush on Business has a post on Could the Knicks Have Avoided Sexual Harassment Claims? Rush gives some good advice on avoiding sexual harassment claims in the context of Knicks approach to the sexual harassment claim.

Daniel A. Schwartz at Connecticut Employment Law Blog has a post on Sexual Harassment Prevention Checkup - The Basics of Training and Posting Dan highlights the importance of supervisor training.

Michael Fox at Jottings by and Employer’s Lawyer has a post Isn't It Time for Basketball Yet?. Michael analyzes the jury’s deliberations.

What I take away from this case is that the investigation was botched because a high level executive used his power to derail or dissuade the company from doing an adequate investigation. When a company’s executives or board members stand accused of harassment, the investigation needs to be done by outside experts. Only an experienced outsider can effectively accomplish what needs to be done to protect the company and manage the whole situation including the following:

• Taking company management out of the hot seat by planning and conducting an appropriate, unbiased, and comprehensive investigation.
• Squelching the accused executive’s ability to influence, obfuscate, or bully the investigator.
• Asking all the hard questions of both the accuser and the accused without fear of reprisal. (You might lose a client, but that’s part of deal).
• Mitigating the emotion involved in accusations of misconduct to avoid really bad reactionary decisions. (Like firing the accuser or accused before conducting an investigation).
• Preserving relationships among and between executives and the board by adding independence to the conclusions of the investigation.
• Advising the decision makers (typically the board of directors) on the import of the facts, necessity of confidentiality, appropriateness of prompt remedial action, and prohibition on retaliation.

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The Lancaster New Era has an interesting article entitled "Worker strikes down union at Lancaster parts maker" which describes a twenty-three year old employee's motivations to decertify the Steelworker's union which had represented employees at the plant for 37 years. By a vote of 11-6, the employees voted to become nonunion for reasons which may be typical for many employees (particularly for Generation Yers):

The key issue in the 2005 strike was the Steelworkers' desire to keep Mac-It a "closed shop," meaning hourly workers who were covered by the union contract had to be union members.

Management wanted to delete the "closed shop" provision, contending it caused some workers to leave Mac-It and made it hard to recruit new ones.

"We wanted people to have a choice," Stillman said. "This is America. People should have a choice."

Walton concurred with management. He wasn't happy that he had to join the Steelworkers.

He wasn't happy that 1.3 percent of his gross pay, including overtime and bonuses, was deducted for union dues.

And he wasn't happy that the union contract, not his productivity, set his pay, and that the contract, not his willingness to take initiative, set what tasks he could perform.

"How to Guides" for decertification appear on several websites, like the National Right to Work Foundation. Union decertifying is governed by the National Labor Relations Act and begins with the filing of a decertification petition supported by 30 percent of the employees in the unit covered by the union. The NRLB imposes time frames on filing a decertification petition that generally coincide with contract expiration. The process of certifying and decertifying a union are almost identical, except for the role that an employer is permitted to take in the decertification process.

When approached by an employee who asks "how to get ride of the union" employers must contain their glee and realize their role is limited as follows:

• An employer may not initiate, instigate, solicit, encourage or actively assist in the filing of a decertification petition. Promoting decertification is impermissible because these activities interfere with employees' free choice.
• An Employer may provide "Ministerial Assistance." If an employee asks a management representative how to remove the union, the representative may lawfully inform the employee of the decertification process.
• Once a petition has been filed, an employer may actively campaign to decertify the union. An employer may give employees arguments for voting against the union; communicate its views in writing, including handouts, posters and letters; and otherwise do anything it is permitted to do in a recognition campaign. 

Employers must tread carefully in the decertification process so as not to invalidate the efforts of their employees.   A union may challenge a decertification vote on the basis of employer interference. The decertification petition may trigger other employer rights associated with the withdraw of recognition of the union as the bargaining agent for the unit. These are complex legal issues that depend on careful evaluation of the facts and circumstances.

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Rush on Business has a good post on "Copy Another Company's Handbook at Your Peril" that summarizes several postings on the downside of adopting employment policies when you don't fully appreciate their applicability to your business. We all like to save time and money by not reinventing the wheel; however, the risks of these shortcuts are amply demonstrated in the case law.

Employers who adopt or copy policies may find themselves covered by laws and regulations that wouldn't otherwise require their compliance. One example cited in a post by Eric Swenson at Managing People in the 21^st Century involves a case in which an employer included an FMLA provision into its handbook without appreciating the fact that the company didn’t meet the statutory threshold for coverage at a particular facility. A federal court held that an employer can be bound by "misrepresentations" in its employee handbook that lead workers to believe they are eligible for FMLA benefits - if an employee reasonably relies on the misrepresentation and is harmed as a result. Michael Fox at Jottings from an Employer's Lawyer follows similar case results in which an employer with less than 20 employees became covered by COBRA because of an employee handbook statement.

The other area of risk involves an employer's misunderstanding of the copied policy or its failure to follow the policy at all because its not part of their normal business practice. In both situations, employers can be held liable for their employment policies or statements about what the policy means even with a strong handbook disclaimer. Pennsylvania cou