Pennsylvania Employment Lawyer & Attorney : Russell Krafft & Gruber Law Firm : Lancaster, York, Harrisburg

The Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) turns 15 this year and workers’ rights advocates, the Bush Administration and the Labor Department are weighing in on proposed changes to the law. According to an April 24 article in the Washington Post,

“...workers would have to tell their bosses in advance when they take nonemergency leave, instead of being able to wait until two days after they left. They would have to undergo "fitness-for-duty" evaluations if they took intermittent leave for medical reasons and wanted to return to physically demanding jobs. To prove that they had a "serious health condition," they would have to visit a health-care provider at least twice within a month of falling ill. What's more, employers would have the right to contact health-care providers who authorized leave.”

As I reviewed these proposals it occured to me that some of these changes may serve to blur the distinction between the FMLA and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA). It is not uncommon for employees to bring claims under both the FMLA and ADA. Avoid getting tripped up in the similarities of FMLA and ADA by understanding the distinctions between the two laws.

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The EEOC’s Report of Discrimination Charge filings notes that Retaliation claims rose 18% to a record high, doubling since 1992. There were 26,663 retaliation based charges filed in 2007 up from 22,555 the previous year. The trend might be explained, in part, by employees filing both a discrimination charge and a retaliation claim; increased awareness by employees, or employers mishandling employee internal complaints of discrimination.

Claims of retaliation take a very predictable path like the one recounted in a recent EEOC lawsuit. Vanguard Group settled a suit filed by the EEOC for a racial retaliation claim for a payment of $500,000.    The suit was based upon an employee’s complaint to management that he was being treated less favorably and discriminated against based on his race. Thereafter, the EEOC contended that the employee began to experience acts of retaliation, including unfavorable changes in his work conditions and assignments, from the managers he accused of race discrimination. The EEOC alleged that this pattern of retaliation resulted in the employee’s termination. The following may help HR Generalist avoid mishandling internal complaints.

1. What is Unlawful Retaliation?

An employer may not fire, demote, harass or otherwise "retaliate" against an individual for filing a charge of discrimination, participating in a discrimination proceeding, or otherwise opposing discrimination. The same laws that prohibit discrimination based on race, color, sex, religion, national origin, age, and disability, as well as wage differences between men and women performing substantially equal work, also prohibit retaliation against individuals who oppose unlawful discrimination or participate in an employment discrimination proceeding. Retaliation occurs when an employer, employment agency, or labor organization takes an adverse action against a covered individual because he or she engaged in a protected activity.

2. What is “Adverse Action” by an Employer?

An adverse action is an action taken to try to keep someone from opposing a discriminatory practice, or from participating in an employment discrimination proceeding. According to the EEOC, examples of adverse actions include:

• Employment actions such as termination, refusal to hire, and denial of promotion;
• Other actions affecting employment such as threats, unjustified negative evaluations, unjustified negative references, or increased surveillance; and
• Any other action such as an assault or unfounded civil or criminal charge that is likely to deter reasonable people from pursuing their rights.

On the other hand, the EEOC states that adverse actions do not include petty slights and annoyances, such as stray negative comments in an otherwise positive or neutral evaluation, "snubbing" a colleague, or negative comments that are justified by an employee's poor work performance or history.

3. What is “Protected Activity” by an Employee?

Protected activity includes either opposing a practice reasonably believed to be unlawful discrimination or participating in a discrimination procedure. 

Opposition is informing an employer that you believe that he/she is engaging in prohibited discrimination. Opposition is protected from retaliation as long as it is based on a reasonable, good-faith belief that the complained of practice violates anti-discrimination law; and the manner of the opposition is reasonable.  The EEOC cited examples of protected opposition to include:

• Complaining to anyone about alleged discrimination against oneself or others;
• Threatening to file a charge of discrimination;
• Picketing in opposition to discrimination; or
• Refusing to obey an order reasonably believed to be discriminatory.

According to the EEOC, examples of activities that are NOT protected opposition include:

• Actions that interfere with job performance so as to render the employee ineffective; or
• Unlawful activities such as acts or threats of violence. 

Participation means taking part in an employment discrimination proceeding. Participation is a protected activity even if the proceeding involved claims that ultimately were found to be invalid. Examples of participation include:

• Filing a charge of employment discrimination;
• Cooperating with an internal investigation of alleged discriminatory practices; or
• Serving as a witness in an EEO investigation or litigation.
• A protected activity can also include requesting a reasonable accommodation based on religion or disability.

4. Promptly Investigate Comments and Complaints Concerning Discrimination

Some HR action should be taken on all communications from employees that could later be “characterized” as either opposition or participation. At a minimum, get the facts underlying a comment about “unfairness” or “discrimination”. Obviously, you can spend your entire workday chasing down spurious remarks. You can circumvent a lot of problems merely by developing a practice of asking “what do you mean when you say it’s discriminatory?” Not taking complaints or comments seriously can be costly.

5. Monitor Supervisors for Adverse Actions following an Employee Complaint

I would wager that most acts of “retaliation” go unnoticed on HR’s radar screen because no one is actively monitoring the situation. If someone has complained about discrimination by a supervisor, HR should follow up informally with the employee to make sure that there is no real or perceived retaliation. 

* Not meant to be exhaustive.

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Employment Practices Liability Insurance (EPLI) may be a relative bargain in the continued “soft” insurance market and employers should consider adding or increasing insurance coverage to protect against employment claims. EPLI insurance is somewhat quirky and the following are some considerations when evaluating policies:

1. Coverage:  EPLI policies typically cover claims of wrongful discharge, workplace harassment and discrimination. Many offer a more comprehensive list of covered acts, including negligent hiring/supervision/evaluations, invasion of privacy, defamation and intentional infliction of emotional distress.  Coverage typically applies to claims made by full time employees so as to exclude those by part-timers, temporary, seasonal and independent contractors.  In comparing policies, look for one that has the most expansive coverage. 
2. Exclusions.  EPLI policies exclude many claims based on the statute that creates the legal right or the activity that gives rise to the claim. Exclusions apply to the Fair Labor Standards Acts; the National Labor Relations Act; the Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act (WARN); the Consolidated Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act (COBRA); the Employee Retirement Income Security Act (ERISA); the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA); the costs associated with providing "reasonable accommodation" under the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA); as well as  claims arising out of downsizing, layoffs, workforce restructurings, plant closures or strikes. Punitive damages are always excluded. Carefully evaluate the excluded claims in light of your business practices. In the case of multi-state operations, be aware that some state laws create substantial employment rights that must also be evaluated under the policy language.
3. Policy Limits and Deductibles: Policy limits and deductibles usually apply on a per claim and aggregate basis. For example, coverage may be limited to $250,000 for each separate claim with an overall aggregate cap of $1 million for all claims. Employers must formulate their insurance goals in setting the appropriate deductibles and limits. Some employers view EPLI insurance as catastrophic coverage and are willing to accept a high deductible that allows them to handle smaller claims themselves.  However, other employers are looking for more blanket coverage.
4. Defense Costs, Selection of Counsel and Settlement: Defense costs are usually included within the EPLI policy’s limits, which has good and bad points. Many times, the legal expense is the largest cost to an employer in dealing with merit less claims. However, including defense costs means that every dollar an employer spends defending a claim reduces the amount available for settlement or to pay a judgment.  Since the existence of insurance coverage must be disclosed as part of discovery in most law suits, a plaintiff’s attorney will factor insurance coverage into his or her case evaluation. The defense cost feature may influence plaintiffs’ counsel to try to settle early, rather than force an employer to incur litigation costs that will only erode the insurance dollars available for potential settlement.  Employment claims often have significant employee relations ramifications making settlement a particularly important issue. Insurers view employment claims the same as any other insurance matter by evaluating only the potential for liability and the amount of damages. The employer and insurer may be at odds over settling a case. EPLI policies address this stalemate by either giving the insurer the right to settle without the employer’s approval or, more frequently, giving  an employer control over settlement, but adding a “hammer clause”. These clauses are designed to limit the insurer’s potential exposure if the policyholder passes up an opportunity to settle a claim recommended by the insurer.  Hammer clauses provide that if there is an offer to settle a claim that the policyholder refuses accept, then the insurer will not be liable for a subsequent settlement or judgment in excess of a rejected settlement amount.  
5. Policy Types and Insurance Company Notification: EPLI policies are typically written on a “claims  made” basis meaning that the claim must be incurred during the coverage period and reported to the insurer during an extended reporting period. Since employment actions may take years to turn into a claims, an employer may be left with no coverage if the policy is dropped or tail coverage isn’t purchased.  Untimely notice to an insurance carrier can void coverage for and employment claim.

* Not intended to be Exhaustive.

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The EEOC receives over 75,000 discrimination charges annually each of which requires a response by an employer.   How companies respond to charges varies greatly. In the legal community there are two schools of thought on the scope of EEOC responses. The first approach follows a minimalist path under the rationale that anything sent to the EEOC is “free discovery” or commits to a defense before all the facts are fully developed. The second approach provides a more detailed response with the goal of getting rid of the claim more quickly. The approach chosen will depend on an evaluation of the claim and the employer’s defenses. The following should be assessed in determining how your company will respond to an EEOC charge or state commission claim:

1.      Time Limitations for Charges and Lawsuits: It can take years for a charge to turn into a lawsuit. During this time, potential back pay is mounting, witnesses are disappearing, and memories are fading. EEOC discrimination charges must be filed within 300 days of the discriminatory action (or 180 days in states do not have discrimination statutes and investigatory agencies). Lawsuits must be filed by the employee within 90 days after the EEOC issues a right to sue letter. It is impossible for me to interpret the EEOC’s data on charge resolutions, but my experience is that the EEOC does not decide many cases and charges remain dormant for long periods of time when the parties don’t move them forward. The delay can work to the advantage of an employer if the employee (or his or her attorney) loses interest in the charge. When the EEOC ultimately closes the case and issues a right to sue letter, the employee may never act on it by filing a lawsuit. In Pennsylvania, the PHRC has a similar track record. Likewise, an employee must file a lawsuit within 2 years of the PHRC’s closing of the complaint.

2.      Shaping the Defense: An investigation of the charge should lead to formulation of a strategy for responding to the EEOC. At that point your defense is limited by your prior response. Inadequately investigated charges and poorly written position letters can severely hamper an employer’s defense. I have seen situations in which “home made” responses gave away or limited important legal defenses.

Information sent to the EEOC may be disclosed to the employee in the course of the investigation and the entire file may be subpoenaed once a lawsuit is filed. The minimalist approach might be appropriate if the facts are bad and you are looking for a quick settlement. A detailed response may be right if you want to convince the EEOC or the employee’s attorney that the case has no merit. I personally don’t like to “lie in the weeds” and hope the employee will go away.

3.      Using Affidavits to Preserve Evidence: Creating an institutional memory of the facts underlying your defense to an EEOC charge is worth considering. People come and go with amazing frequency. So, tracking them down (years later) and hoping they will remember the events with great detail is a risk. If a witness’s recollection is important to your defense, have them sign an affidavit.  Affidavits also keep witnesses from changing their stories as their allegiances change.

4.      Record Retention: Once a charge is filed, a company has an obligation to preserve tangible and electronic records that relate to the employee’s claims. The scope of records may include e-mails, personnel file and other records for the employee and comparable employees. Inadvertent destruction of records even pursuant to a policy can have grave consequences to an employer’s defense including court sanctions, prohibitions on presenting a defense, and jury instruction allowing an adverse inference to be drawn from the absence of the record. The jury may be allowed to presume that a missing or destroyed record would have favored the employee.

5.      Trial Use of EEOC Determinations: Many employers are surprised to learn that an EEOC’s finding of probable cause may be admitted as evidence in a discrimination trial and considered by a jury. As noted by Michael Fox at Jottings by an Employer’s Lawyer, some courts recognize the imperfection of allowing jury consideration of EEOC determinations. Nonetheless, it is powerful evidence when a government agency believes that an employer engaged in discrimination, making it all the more important to carefully tailor your response.

* Not meant to be exhaustive.

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Kris Dunn at the HR Capitalist has a thought provoking post on the value of EAPs that includes the following comment:

Want to get a bunch of HR people nodding their heads?  Make a statement about the value of the Employee Assistance Program (EAP) our companies offer, usually as part of the Life Insurance suite.  It's true, it's a great product and every once in a while we get a great chance to refer someone to it and it does some good.  Much patting on the back usually commences...

Before we start the head nodding and the back patting, consider also the limits of EAPs. Many serious and festering situations aren't appropriately handled by saying "Hey buddy, you know the company has an EAP." This approach is a product of not wanting or knowing how to get involved. It is rationalized by the misapplied legal advice that states "keep it job-related".

There is a dangerous trap created by compartmentalize an employee's "work life" and "home life". It may be appealing, but many times this dichotomy is wholly impractical. The two personas of work and home are inextricably tied and that's what makes mental health and other personal problems one of the biggest challenges facing employers. The challenge often cannot be met by a chance interaction with the EAP (no matter how well it is promoted).

One in five American workers suffer mental illness which makes the odds high that an employer will need to manage such a "personal problem". A difficult task given the stigma attached to mental illness which is made harder by the high level of expertise needed to manage performance issues with a mental health aspect. The result of a mismanaged situation is at best a poor performing employee, possibly an ADA claim, or at worst an act of violence in the workplace.

Statistics on the effectiveness of EAPs are scant, possibly because of the confidentiality that surrounds them. I applaud what EAPs seem to do well: facilitate referral/intake for employees who choose to continue participation beyond the three or so free session provided under the typical plan. I caution on what EAPs don't do at all: absolve employers from liability for ADA and other workplace claims.

Employers may need to consider mandatory referral to a health care professional or EAP. There is a distinct difference between management referrals vs. mandatory referrals. Typical situations may involve alcoholism, drug abuse, or risks of violence in the workplace. A mandatory referral requires that the employee consult a healthcare provider as a condition of continued employment. It may be used in compliance with the ADA Guidelines on Medical Exams when an employer "has a reasonable belief, based on objective evidence", that: (1) an employee's ability to perform essential job functions will be impaired by a medical condition; or (2) an employee will pose a direct threat to himself of others due to a medical condition.

The medical information obtained from the EAP referral is not confidential and needs HIPAA consent. It can be a part of the "interactive process" mandated by the ADA for assessing disability-related accommodations and/or as part of the employer's performance management-disciplinary process. The referral generates an assessment that determines whether the employee is able to perform the essential functions of a position, evaluates accommodations, recommends follow up treatment, and may set conditions on the return to work. It may implicate FMLA leave.

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What is Body Mass Index (BMI)? BMI has become the unofficial scientific measure for assessing obesity. BMI is a function of height and weight (BMI calculator).   The Center for Disease Control classifies a person who has a BMI of less than 18.5 as underweight; normal is 18.5-24.9; overweight is 25-29.9; obese is over 30; and extremely obese is over 40.

What is the BMI analysis telling us about our weight?   A Report by the Trust for America's Health recently disclosed statistics about obesity trends.  In the Report, Pennsylvania had the 23^rd highest rate of adult obesity with 24.5 percent of its population having a BMI over 30.   The Report correlated obesity figures with other factors like Diabetes and Hypertension rates. It also noted levels of admitted physical activity (or inactivity). Twenty-Four percent of Pennsylvanians admit no physical activity.

How good is BMI as a measure of obesity?   Martica Heaner points out the limitations of BMI in her posts BMI Blues and Is Body Mass Index a Bad Measure?:

The BMI works well for research purposes, but doesn’t necessarily translate precisely to the individual. Unfortunately, it tends to convey that people that exercise regularly, for example, are overweight, when they are not actually overfat.  A fit person tends to have more muscle, so their body weight is a reflection of body fat as well as muscle and other lean tissue. 

Since the problem with being overfat is that health risks are increased, a BMI in the overweight range is probably not a negative indicator for a fit person. Regular exercise, low body fat and increased muscle mass are all factors that tend to outweigh any health risks suggested by a higher BMI.

Is there correlation between high BMI and bad health? According to the CDC, the BMI ranges were established based on the health consequences associated with obesity as determined by different BMIs. Some challenge this conclusion saying  that the obesity/health correlation is a myth. However, this the correlation between high BMI and bad health is quickly becoming an assumption.   Others have even gone as far as implying that there is a "conspiracy" perpetuated by those who are making fortunes in weight loss products.

Other than being incorrectly labeled "overweight" or "obese", why should we care whether BMI is a accurate health status predictor? BMI is fast becoming the legal standard for determining whether someone is "obese" and therefore a "health risk". With this label comes a whole host of employment and benefit consequences:

• Cost of and Eligibility for Certain Employee Benefits

Individual insurance policies for life, disability and medical insurance almost universally use underwriting procedures that take into account BMI as a basis for determining insurability and premium.  A survey by the Texas Office of Public Insurance Counsel found that insurance company individual health plan underwriting guidelines used BMI as a basis to deny coverage, charge a higher premium, and offer less coverage. The California Insurance Commission has made comments alerting consumers about BMI as a basis for insurance denial.

Some group health plans are community rated and not subject to medical underwriting. These plans calculate premium based on the expected claims of the community not the individual employer group.  Other group health insurance programs can be subject to medical underwriting in which BMI analysis and other factors will be used to price the coverage for the group.  An employer with  a compliment of employees with potential for high claims (including high BMI) will face higher premiums or denial. Likewise, self-insured medical plans that utilize stop loss coverage may undergo medical underwriting where BMI will be factored into the rate for reinsurance..

Group health plan wellness program incentives may be keyed to BMI targets for premium discounts and other incentives.  The availability of incentives to those with high BMI is subject to limitations including situations when it is "unreasonably difficult" or "medically inadvisable" for a participant to attempt to achieve the BMI standard.

• Employment Discrimination

Under the rationale in EEOC v. Watkins Motor Lines, Inc., being overweight and even obese is not generally considered a "disability".    On the other hand, severe obesity, which has been defined as BMI greater than 40, is clearly an impairment.   In addition, a person with obesity may have an underlying or resultant physiological disorder, such as hypertension or a thyroid disorder. A physiological disorder is an impairment. See 29 C.F.R. § 1630.2(h). Employee who are regarded as disabled due to obesity are also protected under the ADA.

The ADA prohibits disability based distinctions in health plans. So far the EEOC's Guidance in this area has not classified obesity as prohibited basis for making distinctions. However, if the presumption of health risks continues to be tied to BMI, this area may be reevaluated.

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An Associated Press article by Lindsey Tanner reports that McDonald's wrapper tricks kids' taste buds:

Anything made by McDonald's tastes better, preschoolers said in a study that powerfully demonstrates how advertising can trick the taste buds of young children.

Even carrots, milk and apple juice tasted better to the kids if it was wrapped in the familiar packaging of the Golden Arches.

The study had youngsters sample identical McDonald's foods in name-brand or unmarked wrappers. The unmarked foods always lost the taste test.

This doesn’t surprise me or others one bit. The Evil Hr Lady take is that the wrapper perception created by titles pervades corporate decision-making. The result is that good ideas in the wrong wrappers don't get their just due.  I took a different direction.  When I saw the same article, I thought of appearance bias.

We are about due for another round of surveys or articles about how good looking people get better jobs, raises, and service for no other reason then they are attractive. Some older articles make this point like CNBC's Hidden Camera investigation entitled "Face Value", Catherine Kaputa's Why Attractive People Get Paid More and What You Can Do About It, or Kate Lorenz's Do Pretty People Earn More?

To use a cliché, perceptions are reality. The concept of evaluating people and their ideas on their merits is intellectually unassailable. However, if it were universally practiced, society wouldn't need laws against discrimination and job bias. Discrimination is, at least partially, a bias based on the wrapper, rather than the content. Certainly, "unattractive" is not a protected class. However, unattractive can be a code word for appearance prejudices that are legally prohibited such as those based on race, sex, national origin, age, and disability.

No where is the difference between the wrapper and its contents more important than in the defense of a discrimination claim. TheMcDonnell Douglas Test uses a three step legal standard for evaluating such claims. In the first step, the employee/applicant must show they are in a protected class, are qualified for a job and suffered some adverse employment action. In the second step, the employer must that it had a legitimate business reason for its decision. In the third step, the employee may show that the employer's "reason" is a pretext for discrimination.

Don't let the McDonald's/kid's eating habits analogy trivialize my point, employment decisions must be based on content and qualifications. When evaluation of the content involves subjective assessments make sure that decisions aren't influenced by stereotypes or biases resulting from perceptions.  Interviewers should be trained to appreciate the legal importance of job content in their evaluations of candidates.  Everyone should assess the role of their own hidden biases and their impact on workplace decisions.

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Telecommuting (a.k.a. working at home) has been buffeted about in a whole host of recent surveys which are nicely summarized in a SHRM article by Kathy Gurchiek entitled Upper Management Distrusts Telecommuting but Cites Benefits.   There is a mixed perception of the work at home world the travails of which are discussed at the Telecommuting Journal, a blog dedicated to the subject. Many employers believe that that there is no substitute for face to face communication. It may come down to "trust" with telecommuting still viewed as a "perk" that may hold back a career.

Despite these management perspectives, an employer's reluctance to allow telecommuting may be trumped by the American's with Disabilities Act's provisions on reasonable accommodation. The EEOC has published guidance stating that "allowing someone with a disability to work at home may be a form of reasonable accommodation." The EEOC's Fact Sheet explains issues ranging from whether a particular job can be performed at home to the frequency with which work at home must be offered.

Courts reviewing employee claims for a work at home accommodation focus on many things to determine the feasibility including the following:

• The employer's ability to supervise the employee adequately.
• whether any duties require use of certain equipment or tools that cannot be replicated at home.
• whether there is a need for face-to-face interaction and coordination of work with other employees.
• whether in-person interaction with outside colleagues, clients, or customers is necessary.
• whether the position in question requires the employee to have immediate access to documents or other information located only in the workplace.

Employers should not summarily deny a work at home disability request. They must engage in an "interactive process" with the employee to assess the reasonableness of the requested accommodation.

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Obtaining a release from an employee that waives the myriad of federal and state employment law claims is an art and not a science. It requires balancing contradictory government regulations, harmonizing competing employee relations goals, and cajoling, a more than likely, disgruntled employee.

When a business pays money to a departing employee, it wants the matter over. However, the patchwork of government regulations and varying court decisions interpreting them make it difficult to obtain that degree of certainty. Sometimes employees challenge the validity of a release and try to pursue their claims. In some cases, regulations even allow an employee to keep the money while suing the employer.

The legal standard for obtaining a valid release generally involves assessing whether the employee's waiver of claims was "knowing and voluntary". In the case of claims under the Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA), the U.S. Department of Labor used 9 pages of regulations to define when a waiver is knowing and voluntary. In other cases, Pennsylvania courts assess the knowing and voluntary release of discrimination claims based on the following factors:

• The clarity and specificity of the release language
• The employee's educational and business experience
• The time given the employee to deliberate before signing the release
• Whether the employee knew or should have known what rights he or she was giving up
• Whether the employee was encouraged to seek or sought legal counsel
• Whether there was an opportunity to negotiate over the terms
• Whether the employee was given consideration exceeding the benefits he was already entitled to receive.

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Most HR professionals abhor their role as "fashion police" and arbiter of seemingly childish workplace skirmishes over perceived wardrobe malfunctions, odoriferous perfumes/colognes and other personal hygiene gaffs. However, ignoring these matters can land an employer in court for an alleged violation of the American's with Disabilities Act ("ADA").

A recent AP article entitled "Eau de Lawsuit: Woman sues over scent" describes an employee in the Detroit planning department who claims she is severely sensitive to perfumes and other cosmetics. She has sued the city, saying a co-worker's strong fragrance prohibits her from working. Her lawsuit under the ADA claims that her employer failed to accommodate her disability by banning perfumes in the workplace.

Seem odd? A quick review of the ADA case law shows no less that 18 reported court decisions with similar facts. In Davis v. Utah State Tax Commission, the employer was held liable for an ADA violation because it failed to engage in the interactive process to evaluate possible accommodations. In Kaufmann v. GMAC Mortgage Corp., the employer prevailed because it took steps to accommodate and the court recognized that providing a completely scent-free environment was unreasonable.

The difficult employee relations issue presented is the balancing of one employee's ADA rights with other employees' personal rights. As many employer's have learned, the ADA rights trump personal rights in the workplace. Nonetheless, employer's must avoid disclosing too much confidential medical information or allowing the disabled employee to be ridiculed or harassed for the requested accommodations.

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There are psychological tests and assessment tools that are predictive of violent behavior, but there are significant legal restrictions on their use. Assessments that are not "medical tests" may be used on a pre-employment basis, but should not be used as the principal reason for a hiring or promotion decision.

There is no profile of a potential workplace violence perpetrator; however, there are traits when coupled with at risk situations that increase the likelihood of violent behavior. Sheryl and Mark Grimm of the Workplace Violence Headquarters have developed a Formula for Workplace Violence that includes a list of traits as follows:

• Previous history of violence, toward the vulnerable, e.g., women, children, animals
• Loner, withdrawn; feels nobody listens to him; views change with fear
• Emotional problems, e.g., substance abuse, depression, low self-esteem
• Career Frustration, either significant tenure on the same job of migratory job history
• Antagonistic relationships with others
• Some type of obsession, e.g., weapons, other acts of violence, romantic/sexual, zealot (political, religious, racial), the job itself, neatness and order .

There is a major legal distinction made between an employer's treatment of an applicant with a potentially violent personality and the treatment of employee conduct that exhibits violent behavior. The EEOC has stated that its position on the distinction between perception and conduction in its  Enforcement Guidance for Individuals with Psychiatric Disabilities :

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As a follow up to the previous posting, Dr. Ira Wolfe offers his thoughts on Psychopathy in the Workplace based in part on his experience with personality assessments conducted through his business Success Performance Solutions. Thank you Ira for your contribution.

We may never know the final diagnosis that drove Cho Seung-Hui to his mass murder spree at Virginia Tech but one thing is for sure: our desire to know "What on earth is wrong with that guy?" will continue. 

Fortunately most of us will never have to face what the students and faculty did on April 16, 2007. What many of us have and will experience are our interactions with an equally destructive and dangerous group that lurks behind many resumes and executive desks. Specifically I'm writing about psychopaths who are walking and working among us every day.

Many of you will likely have the same reaction as I did when I picked up a copy of a new book, "Snakes in Suits: When Psychopaths Go to Work": you're thinking serial killers and stalkers or picturing Hannibal Lecter, Freddy Krueger, and Dr. No. Reality however paints a far different picture. Psychopathic behavior is not illegal. It is not in fact even classified as a mental illness. Psychopathy is a personality disorder and hiring managers today often confuse its symptoms with success attributes.

Psychopaths live and work freely among us. In fact in today's dog-eat-dog world where greed is good and the survivor of the fittest earns the most riches, psychopathic behavior is innocently recognized as talent. For example, how many rising stars have you known who are driven, ambitious, resilient, charming, articulate, intelligent, and charismatic? Their mere presence disarms the most skeptical while their supporters fawn and idolize them. Now remove a moral conscience and the incapability of empathy, guilt or loyalty to anyone but themselves and viola - you have a psychopath. What interviewers see is not always what they get.

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Many employers utilize some form of pre-employment testing to assist them in hiring decisions. A 2000 study by the American Management Association reported that 69% of firms used some form of job skills testing and 33% used psychological testing. 

There are general legal restrictions on the use of pre-employment testing in addition to the general prohibitions on discrimination found in Title VII and the Pennsylvania Human Relations Act. The Uniform Guidelines on Employee Section Procedures prohibit the use of a test or selection process that has an adverse impact on individuals in a protected class unless the test has criterion-related, content and construction validation studies. The validation studies must consist of empirical data demonstrating that the test is (1) predictive of performance of important elements of job performance; (2) contains content which tests important aspects of performance on the job; and (3) consists of procedures that assess identifiable characteristics that have been determined to be important to job performance.

Both the ADA and the Pennsylvania Human Relations Act prohibit the use of "medical tests" prior to an employer extending a conditional offer of employment. A medical test is generally one that seeks information about an individual's physical or mental health or impairments. Courts examining whether a test is "medical" have looked at the following factors: (1) administration or interpretation of the test by a medical professional; (2) intent of design of the test to reveal a medical or mental impairment; (3) conducting the test in a medical setting; (4) measurement of the individual's psychological responses to performing a task; (5) necessity of medical equipment to perform the test; and (6) invasive nature of the procedure.

Following is a summary of some of the more popular pre-employment tests employed by businesses to assess applicants:

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Staffing is a critical and time consuming function for human resource professionals. To expedite the process, many employers turn to staffing agencies to assist in or even take over the staffing function. Relationships with staffing agencies can take a variety of forms including temporary placements, temp to hire arrangements, and employee leasing with a professional employer organization (PEO).

 Many employers are surprised to learn that their company may have legal responsibility and even liability for temporary and leased employees. Liability arises when a company has the right to control the manner of the performance of the worker's activities.   When such a right to control is present, a company may be a joint employer with the temporary agency or PEO. Most common temporary agency relationships create joint employment because the temporary worker performs services at the company's business location under the direction and supervision of the company.

 The prime example of the joint employment principal in Pennsylvania is found in the case of JFC Temps, Inc. v. WCAB (Lindsay and G&B Packing), 680 A. 2d 862 (Pa. 1996). In JFC Temps, a worker was hired by a temporary agency, and was assigned to work for a trucking company. The worker performed his services at the trucking company, and the trucking company manager informed him of his work hours, the equipment he would be using, and the locations to which he was to drive. No representative of the temporary agency was ever at the trucking facility. The worker was injured in the course of the performance of the services for the trucking company. The injured worker sought workers' compensation benefits from the temporary agency.

Under these circumstances, the Pennsylvania Supreme Court held that the trucking company (not the temporary agency) was the injured worker's employer for worker's compensation purposes because the trucking company possessed the right to control the manner of the performance of the claimant's work. In fact, the Court noted, the temporary agency had no substantial contact with the claimant other than processing his paycheck, and, as such, could not be said to have controlled the manner of performance of the work. The Court so held despite the fact that the temporary agency had the authority to terminate the injured worker's employment.

The obvious problem for the trucking company was that the workers' compensation claim was likely uninsured since it did not consider the temporary worker to be one of its employees. This type of unexpected liability translates into other areas of the employment relationship like pension and medical benefits, payroll taxes, and discrimination laws. 

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Who's an Employer?  In the past week, I've had occasion to talk to several HR professionals about how the number of employees can define whether various employment laws apply, and that just a few employees either way can make a big difference, particularly for small employers.  Pay attention to the following shortlist, particularly if you have turnover and frequent changes in the number in your workforce.  Remember that how part time employees are counted also changes from statute to statute.  There may also be exemptions from coverage for certain industries like agriculture.    

      Total Number of Employees:                          Subject to the following employment laws:

• All employers regardless of size . . . . . . OSHA, Equal Pay Act (EPA), Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA)
• You have 4 or more employees . . . . . .  Pennsylvania Human Relations Act, Lancaster County Human Relations Ordinance
• You have 15 or more employees . . . . . . Title VII,   Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
• You have 20 or more employees . . . . . .  Age Discrimination in Employment Act, COBRA  
• You have 50 or more employees . . . . . . Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA)
• You have 100 or more employees . . . . . . Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act

The above is a partial list of statutes and law that apply to employers in Pennsylvania. For more information federal discrimination laws, consult the EEOC website.

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